At a glance
Fine particles (PM₂.₅) are usually the most dangerous in Skopje’s winter smog, but other gases like NO₂ and O₃ also matter, especially near busy roads and during summer.
PM₂.₅
Fine particulate matter · < 2.5 μm
Tiny particles that can travel deep into the lungs and enter the bloodstream. In Skopje, PM₂.₅ levels often spike in winter from domestic heating, traffic, and industrial emissions.
- Typical sources: wood and coal burning, traffic exhaust, industry.
- Health focus: heart and lung disease, stroke risk, long-term exposure.
PM₁₀
Coarse particulate matter · < 10 μm
Larger particles such as dust, ash, and pollen. They irritate the upper airways, especially for people with asthma or chronic respiratory problems.
- Typical sources: road dust, construction, burning, wind-blown soil.
- Health focus: coughing, throat irritation, asthma flare-ups.
NO₂
Nitrogen dioxide
A gas linked strongly to traffic. NO₂ levels are usually higher close to busy roads, intersections, and bus routes.
- Typical sources: car and bus exhaust, power plants, industry.
- Health focus: breathing difficulties, especially in children.
O₃
Ground-level ozone
Not emitted directly, but formed in the air when sunlight reacts with other pollutants. Often higher on sunny, warm days.
- Typical sources: chemical reactions of NOₓ and volatile organics.
- Health focus: chest tightness, reduced lung function during exercise.
SO₂
Sulfur dioxide
A gas produced when fuels containing sulfur are burned. In high levels it can irritate the airways and combine with other pollutants to form particles.
- Typical sources: heavy fuels, some industries, older heating systems.
- Health focus: shortness of breath, irritation in sensitive groups.
CO
Carbon monoxide
A colorless, odourless gas formed by incomplete combustion. Outdoors it is usually lower risk, but still a useful indicator of traffic and heating patterns.
- Typical sources: vehicle exhaust, faulty heaters, incomplete burning.
- Health focus: reduces oxygen delivery in the body at high levels.